During the 19th century, the
Western Expansion preoccupied the minds' of most Americans. After the
acquisition of the Louisiana territory, American nationalism was at its peak as
all of America scrambled throughout to turn the belief in Manifest Destiny into
a dream come true. This directly resulted in the Transcontinental Railroad,
which became the perfect solution to join the West coast and the East coast.
During one of the greatest movements in history, Robert Grainier, a character
in Denis Johnson's novella, lives on the Western frontier while experiencing
this historical movement in terms of De Certeau's Spatial Stories.
Michel
De Certeau's Spatial Stories reinforce the definitions of words we may use
every day, but may not understand the true meaning behind. There's a fine line
between certain words that calls for the need to specifically differentiate one
from the other. A clear example would be the words "space" and
place" or "map" and "tour." Although both sets of words
have similar context, both are of different origin and define completely
different subjects.
Michel
De Certeau's Spatial Stories act as a guiding vessel in the employment of the
overarching concepts of the spatial stories explored in Train Dreams. These
concepts include the difference between space and place, as well as an understanding
of how thresholds are defined in Train Dreams. And in between these space,
place, and threshold, what are frontiers. Through these analyses, we can better
understand the text and the message Johnson is trying to articulate.
De Certeau
defines space as an area where the existence is created by the activity that defines
it so. The definition of place is the establishment of space. Therein place
only exist after space is created and recreated over again with the same
purpose in mind. This can be seen in Train Dreams throughout the novella in
both literal terms and conceptual terms.
Such that
Grainier’s home would represent something that is a “place,” while “space”
would be that of the entire town of Moyea Valley. In that the daily activities
of the townspeople would create what a “town” is. Space can contain places, but
in theory, it space is the creation of place. An example would be how Grainier
can live in Moyea Valley, but the Valley itself can change due to external
causes. Although the valley can change, the location in which Grainier chooses
to live will still be his home. An example in the novella would be when
Grainier’s cabin burned down, even though his cabin is gone, the concept of
home is not. As long as Grainier rebuilds this cabin on the same plot of land
and resumes doing “home” activities, it will still remain as a definition of
home. This applies to space, too. Grainier had participated in various
locations throughout the novella to aid the development of the railroads. Each location
he had worked on would be considered as one of De Certeau’s space. This is due
to the fact that each space is occupied for different reasons. His occupation
as a logger, for example, led him to occupy a forest. In that moment the forest
is still a forest, but once it is cleared, it becomes another space. Because
they are occupied only for the moment, they are interchangeable. Thereby
abiding De Certeau’s law of space.
With this
concept, home can be seen as something stagnant and unchangeable, whilst a town
is fickle and ever changing. Just as there is a definition for “space” and
“place” in literal terms, there is also a conceptual distinction in “space” and
“place.” Grainier’s character lacks mental development throughout the entire
novella, thereby characterizing his internal mind as a “place.” Compared to
most of the other characters throughout the series of short stories, Grainier
does not cognitively “grow up.” This can be seen in the dialogue between his
wife, Gladys, and him in the beginning of the story. In which, he asks her how
much does his four month old daughter know. Through this dialogue, one can
assume Grainier’s mind is one of a simpleton. Not only that, but he does not
strive for change. In the scene where Elvis Presley, the King of Rock, passes
by on a train and waves, Grainier metaphorically misses his appearance. This
indicates Grainier’s inability in keeping up with the ever-changing world, as
he obsesses over his wife and child’s death. Abstractly, this would also characterize
the other characters in town as a “space.” In that each character changes. Dealing
with similar woes as Grainier, the colorful characters that Grainier meets
appear to be more dynamic. In that each character has their life changing
moment, yet each has the ability to move on. William Coswell Haley molested his
niece when she was 12 and left town shortly after he discovered that his
brother beat her to death. Although a heinous crime, Haley was able to move on
and physically live his life, albeit with underlying guilt. This goes for the
widow Claire Thompson, whose husband had passed away in the previous summer. Although
a short marriage, it was a marriage nevertheless; she had picked up everything
to leave Montana for Idaho. Similarly so, Eddie Sauer, an audaciously brazen
character with a playboy past, ironically pursues Claire Thompson and asks for
her hand in marriage. Each character lives to move on, yet Grainier is stuck in
the moment with the ghosts of his past. Thus Train Dreams, prove De Certeau’s
concept of space and place, where each is distinctly different in its own
rights, although the connotations of both are very similar. Johnson’s text
reinforces these concepts in a literal sense, as well as a conceptual sense.
If there
exist a difference in space and place, then there is also a difference in frontier.
In which frontier is usually confused as a simple border separating two
different geographical regions of space.
Through
short stories, Johnson confirms De Certeau’s explanation that a true frontier
is not just a border that separates, but also a bridge between two unique
spaces. Thus one space can and only will exist when both frontiers and bridges
exist. This can be proven throughout Train Dreams in the series of events in
Grainier’s life.
In
a literal sense, the definition of what is human only exists because there is
also a definition of what is not. In reference to Train Dreams, there exists
normal people like Robert Grainier or Kootenai Bob and the rest of the townspeople
and there exists animals, like the wolves and the wolf-girl. Through this
intangible frontier, there is a bridge. Because of the separation, there is
also a link in between the gap. Without humans, animals would not be considered
animals. Without animals, there would not be humans. Therein it is necessary
for a bridging between both characterizations for the formation of a frontier.
Another example would be the existence of the individual. There can only be a
“self” if the opposite of “self” (everyone else) exists. Grainier becomes a
unique character, not because of his past sufferings, but because of his unique
mentality. In an abstract sense, Grainier has his own “self” and becomes this
individual because no one else has the same outlook as him. An example would be
Claire Thompson. Both she and Grainier were widowed within a few years of
marriage. Although both experienced similar tragedies, both deal with their
situation uniquely. In which Grainier wallows in his past and Thompson moves on
towards the future. Each character deals with similar experiences in their own
unique way. The bridge between these two characters would be the death of their
significant other. The frontier that exists would be their mentality in dealing
with the actual situation.
Even
in the internal battles within the self, Johnson clearly outlines that there is
the existence of a frontier, as well as a bridging between the gaps of the two
differences. Grainier battles with the differences of reality and fantasy
repeatedly, throughout the mini novel. In which, he has recurring encounters
with the ghosts of his past. In the near real life encounter with the ghost of
his wife, he reinvents her last moments in the cabin long after she dies, yet
he is able to picture the entirety of the event in a realistic manner. In
Grainier’s fantasy, he cannot separate the difference between reality and
fantasy. This illustrates the underlying message that Johnson tries to recreate,
in that there is a fine line that frontiers creates. This frontier divides, but
presents the opportunity for a bridge to form between two different concepts with
similar ideas. Similarly so, Grainier also stumbles across another man who may
knowingly or unknowingly battle with reality and fantasy. Mr. Peterson had
reassured Grainier that his gunshot wound was the result of his dog shooting
him in self-defense. In reality, the occurrence of such event is not very
likely. Even Grainier who can be a bit of a simpleton, questioned Peterson’s
story. The question of what is real and fake can only exist because of the
“frontier” that exist. This frontier can only exist when the bridge that
defines what is related also exists. In this situation the relationship between
truth and lies establish this bridge. Truth is related to lies in that they
both are the counter definitions of each other. Therefore, reality is directly
proportional to truth, just as lies are to fantasy.
In terms of frontiers, bridges,
spaces and places, the subject matter of threshold comes into question. Thresholds
can be defined in many different ways. The definition that usually comes to
mind is any place or point of entering or beginning.
In De
Certeau’s definition, a true threshold is any occupiable transitional space. In
Train Dreams, this definition is broad and can be defined in a physical sense,
as well as in a conceptual and mental fashion.
In the
physical sense, tangible thresholds would be the land reserved for the Western
Expansion. Because of the concept of Manifest Destiny, each space was kept in
mind as a space for transition. In that a place that was once a forest may be
cleared to form a space, in which the loggers will occupy. After all the trees
are chopped down, the space can perhaps become a place for railroads to pass
through. Because of this establishment, it can also lead to the development of
a town due to the settlers that may build their homes in the surrounding area.
The possibilities are endless. The infinite potential illustrates how malleable
this space is. Therein creating the idea of a threshold, since the space is so
flexible, it is always in transition.
In a
conceptual threshold, there exists a temporal threshold that is affected by the
mentality of one person. In which, the transitioning space is the progression
of the novel through miniature stories. Although each story exists in its own
realms, there is a transition in time to each story. These gaps are the
thresholds that lead Grainier to each person. These are the Spatial Stories
that De Certeau speaks about. Each story occupies a space in Grainier’s mind.
The transition between these stories becomes the threshold of time, but they exist
uniquely to each person. In that each occurrence of an event would apply to
each person differently. The mentality of each person would affect the temporal
threshold that is created from one event to another. This transitional realm is
abstract in the sense that it can be affected by the mind in the moment, just
as well as it can be affected in the past and the future. A temporal threshold
caters to the person’s thoughts. An example of the existence of the temporal
threshold would be Granier’s perception of the wolf-girl. Peterson had somewhat
convinced Grainier that the wolf-girl was equivalent to that of a demon in the
beginning of the novel. Towards the end of the novel, he encounters this
wolf-girl. Upon the first-hand confrontation, he recognizes her to be his
daughter, Kate. He had believed that she had escaped from the wild fire that
had caused Gladys’s death. He immediately comes to her rescue. He brings his
daughter into his cabin and fixes a splint on her leg using his own clothes and
a stick. The cognition of Granier proves that there exists a temporal threshold
and a mental threshold that cross-fade. The existence of this threshold allows
for his perceptions to change from being afraid of something unknown, to
immediate affection for the very same thing he was once afraid of. This
threshold can change depending on Grainier’s future experiences in this matter.
If he happens to gain more information on the wolf-girl or new information in
general, he could possibly change his perception due to the accumulation of new
ideas. Thereby creating a temporal threshold because it is always in transition
as well as a mental threshold in that the mentality of one person is affected
by the sequential events in life.
Through
each story a little more of the Valley of Moyea is uncovered. We begin to see
the Spatial Stories that De Certeau speaks about through Train Dreams. In
which, we are then able to understand the distinct definitions to the words
with similar context, such as the words, space and place. Not only the
similarities of words are explored, but also words that represent opposites
like frontier and bridges are brought into the light. The creation of such
distinct spaces, places, frontiers, and bridges, allow for the existence of
thresholds. Using Train Dreams and the stories told within the novella, we were
able to differentiate and categorize each story to assemble a distinct
definition with clarity.
